PMID- 26216554
OWN - NLM
STAT- MEDLINE
DCOM- 20160506
LR  - 20220311
IS  - 1099-1077 (Electronic)
IS  - 0885-6222 (Linking)
VI  - 30
IP  - 4
DP  - 2015 Jul
TI  - Why all stimulant drugs are damaging to recreational users: an empirical overview 
      and psychobiological explanation.
PG  - 213-24
LID - 10.1002/hup.2468 [doi]
AB  - AIMS: Stimulant drugs such as nicotine and Ecstasy/3, 
      4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) are taken for positive reasons, yet their 
      regular use leads to deficits rather than gains. This article outlines the 
      psychobiological rationale for this paradox. METHODS: The empirical literature on 
      nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine, Ecstasy/MDMA, and mephedrone are reviewed. A 
      theoretical explanation for why they are problematic to humans is then described. 
      RESULTS: The acute effects of central nervous system (CNS) stimulants are 
      typically positive, with greater alertness and emotional intensity. However, in 
      the post-drug recovery period, the opposite feelings develop, with lethargy and 
      low moods. All recreational stimulants cause mood fluctuation, although it is 
      most pronounced in drugs with rapid onset and comedown (e.g. nicotine and 
      cocaine), explaining why they are the most addictive. Parallel fluctuations occur 
      across many psychological and neurocognitive functions, with users suffering 
      various off-drug deficits. CNS stimulants also affect the 
      hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, impairing sleep, disrupting homeostasis, and 
      exacerbating psychiatric distress. Neuroimaging studies reveal altered brain 
      activity patterns in regular users. These problems are related to lifetime usage 
      but commence in novice users. CONCLUSIONS: Repetitive CNS stimulation is 
      potentially damaging to the organism, both acutely and chronically. The review 
      describes the various psychobiological systems through which recreational 
      stimulant drugs impair human well-being.
CI  - Copyright (c) 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
FAU - Parrott, Andrew C
AU  - Parrott AC
AD  - Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, South Wales, UK.
LA  - eng
PT  - Journal Article
PT  - Review
PL  - England
TA  - Hum Psychopharmacol
JT  - Human psychopharmacology
JID - 8702539
RN  - 0 (Central Nervous System Stimulants)
RN  - 0 (Illicit Drugs)
SB  - IM
MH  - Central Nervous System Stimulants/*adverse effects
MH  - Databases, Bibliographic/statistics & numerical data
MH  - Humans
MH  - Illicit Drugs/*adverse effects
MH  - Substance-Related Disorders/*etiology/*psychology
OTO - NOTNLM
OT  - MDMA
OT  - cocaine
OT  - mephedrone
OT  - methamphetamine
OT  - nicotine
OT  - stimulant
EDAT- 2015/07/29 06:00
MHDA- 2016/05/07 06:00
CRDT- 2015/07/29 06:00
PHST- 2014/09/12 00:00 [received]
PHST- 2015/01/20 00:00 [accepted]
PHST- 2015/07/29 06:00 [entrez]
PHST- 2015/07/29 06:00 [pubmed]
PHST- 2016/05/07 06:00 [medline]
AID - 10.1002/hup.2468 [doi]
PST - ppublish
SO  - Hum Psychopharmacol. 2015 Jul;30(4):213-24. doi: 10.1002/hup.2468.